The 7 C'S Of Argumentation Page 2

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Concession Starters/Transitional Phrases
I admit that
Even though
Certainly
It is true that
Perhaps
I accept
Of course
I agree that
I realize that
admittedly
granted
I cannot argue that
even though
I agree that
while it is true that
Craft your argument
6.
Use logical appeals—facts, statistics, expert opinions, anecdotes, and examples
Avoid appeals to fear or ignorance
Use levels of evidence—a minimum of two pieces of evidence to support each reason
Confirm your claim
7.
Conclude with a coherent restatement of main arguments
Use a call to action
Avoid Fallacies of Thinking—Use Logic!
An argument is a chain of reasons, supported by evidence, that support a claim. Faulty logic
means using evidence that is fuzzy, exaggerated, illogical, or false. Be careful to avoid faulty logic when
defending claims.
Appeal to Ignorance—Claiming that since no one has ever proved a claim, it must be false. Shifts the
burden of proof onto someone else. “Show me one study that proves…”
Appeal to Pity—Using excuses to ask for leniency. “Imagine what it must have been like…”
Bandwagon or Appealing to a Popular Position—Appeals to everyone’s sense of wanting to belong or
be accepted. “Everyone believes it or does it so you should too.”
Broad Generalization—Takes in everything and everyone at once and allows for no exceptions. Using
words like “all” and “everyone” are too general. “Is this claim true for all of the people being discussed,
or just for some?”
Circular Thinking—Restating your claim in different words as evidence for your claim. “I hate this class
because I’m never happy in this class.”
Either-Or Thinking—Offering evidence that reduces examples to two possible extremes. “Are there
other possibilities that should be considered?”
Half-Truths—Telling only part or half of the truth. “Is this the full story—or is there another side to this
that is not being told?”
Oversimplification—Simplifying complex topics into a “simple question.” “______________ is a simple
question of ___________.”
Slanted Language or Distracting the Reader—Selecting words that have strong positive or negative
connation in order to distract the reader from valid arguments. “Is this evidence dealing with the real
issue?” “No one in his right mind would ever do anything that dumb.”
Testimonial—Make sure the expert opinion is an authority on the topic. “What are this person’s
credentials?”
Exaggerating the Facts—“Is everything that is being said true and accurate?”
Using a False Cause—Making a direct link between two separate things without evidence to back it up.
“Is it fair to assume that the cause of the problem is exactly what the writer says, or might there be
completely different causes?”
If Only Thinking—Using evidence that cannot be tested. “How does the writer know this would have
happened? Is there other evidence, or it is simply an ‘if only’ argument?”
Source: 2011 Utah ELA Core Academy
7

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